>

# Radio-Range Manual ## Version 03 The Four-Course Radio Range ... A low-frequency guidance system to define Airways or to direct aircraft to Runways.
##### 1 ... Introduction 2 ... The Radio Range 3 ... What is included 4 ... Operation 5 ... Training Flight | ##### 16 ... More on Flying the Range 17 ... Flight Planning 18 ... Station Data 19 ... Instrument Approaches 10 ... Your New DC-3 | ##### 11 ... Custom Kneeboard 12 ... Some Selected Flights 13 ... Install and Uninstall 14 ... References 15 ... Acknowledgements
1 . . . INTRODUCTION Airline navigation in the 1930s was a challenge. Pilots navigated by Dead Reckoning and Pilotage for daytime flights and used the airways light-beacon system for night flights. But in both cases flights were limited to good weather. Bad weather wreaked havoc on airline schedules, either grounding flights or diverting them. Passengers were unhappy, airlines were unhappy, and pilots were unhappy. Along came the four-course radio range. This was a brilliantly-conceived system which transmitted electronic beams that an aircraft could follow without the need to see the ground. A low frequency transmitting station generated four electronic beams like the spokes of a wheel. One could adjust any beam azimuth to either point to another radio range station, forming an Airway, or to a runway at a nearby airport for instrument landing guidance. Best of all, to use the Radio Range system only a low frequency radio and a switch box were needed in the aircraft. Although not perfect, the Radio Range system was so durable that it was the primary aviation navigation system for twenty years until the introduction of VOR navigation in the 1950s. And now, thanks to designers Dave Bitzer, Alex Nicolson and Norman Hancock, there is a bona fide Radio Range System for Flight Simulator pilots, too. Return to the Top of this document 2 . . . THE RADIO RANGE All airline pilots who flew before the introduction of VORs had to master the Radio Range. Captain Dick Merrill was such a pilot and he flew everything from the OX-5 Jenny to a Lockheed 1011 in his 45,000 hour flight career. Merrill's description of the Radio Range in Wings of Man by Jack King, is one of the best. Thanks to Alex Nicolson for bringing this to our attention. The Radio Range by Captain Dick Merrill . . . By later standards, ground navigation aids during this [pre VOR] era also were extremely crude. The primary navigation system was comprised of sparsely located Adcock low frequency range transmitters. Each facility consisted of four legs which could be used as "beams" for navigating either to or from a station on the airways or for shooting low approaches for landing. Each range station emitted audio signals comprised of four quadrants. Two quadrants provided a Morse code signal of "N" or "dah-dit" while the opposing Quadrant emitted an "A" signal or "dit-dah." Each quadrant overlapped precisely to provide a three degree leg or beam by meshing the audio signals of "dah-dit" with "dit-dah" to provide a continuous dash or "on course" signal. Obviously the range stations needed to be located near major airports to provide the approach facility. The four legs of each station could be beamed in a direction to connect with other stations to form a system of "colored" airways. Amber Seven, for example, ran from Miami to Newark. A few fan and marker beacons had been installed at various locations in order to identify a specific point. Quite often the quadrants were not configured in equal sizes and were descriptively referred to as "crow foot" ranges. Since the beam fanned out three degrees from the station, and was three miles wide at 60 miles out, it was considered standard procedure to fly the right edge of the beam for precise navigation. Also, if you happened to pass another aircraft flying blind at the same altitude in the opposite direction, it was considered enough separation to prevent a mid air collision. For navigation purposes, the only way to confirm whether you were flying toward or away from the station was the use of the volume control. Each pilot developed his own individual volume level in determining a build or fade in signal strength to determine if he was flying to or from the station. There were several elaborate "orientation" procedures developed for use with the four course low frequency range should a pilot become lost. All this technology worked fine in good weather, but storms and static could make it almost useless. Another characteristic of the low frequency range was the "cone of silence" immediately above the station, which would denote position. A typical approach involved crossing over the station initially to establish position, flying outbound several minutes on the approach leg, executing a procedure turn and precisely bracket the right edge of the beam while descending to an initial approach altitude. As an aircraft approached the station, the three degree beam was extremely narrow and practically rocking the wings would transverse the beam into signals of the opposite quadrant. The key was to complete the bracketing maneuvers far enough out to tie down a heading which would only require minor changes near the station. When the "cone of silence" was passed, a time reference was made for minutes or seconds to go and descent completed to minimum altitude. After visual contact was established with the airport, quite often a circling approach was required to complete the landing. The low frequency range approach was a very impressive procedure and proof of pilot instrument proficiency. Senior pilots proficient with the procedure often stated, "It separates the men from the boys." Go to http://www.avialantic.com/jking/wom.html for more info or to order Wings of Man. Return to the Top of this document 3 . . . WHAT IS INCLUDED Click image for full-view picture Here are the Radio Range highlights, but see below for more details. The Radio Range DC-3 Aircraft The Radio Range zip file installs a new DC-3 Radio Range aircraft in your Flight Simulator, which is a significant upgrade of the default fs9 DC-3. Three panels are selectable from the FS aircraft list depending on your choice of flight era. The Radio Range Gauge The DC-3 panels contain a BC-345 switch box to select either Range signals, Voice signals, or both. The Readme file also describes how to install the Radio Range gauges on an aircraft panel of your choice. Program Files The installation files include add-on Scenery to accurately place most Radio Range Stations on the ground that were in the Eastern half of the US and Canada in 1944. The installation also places the sound files into your FS required to fly the Radio Range. Radio Range Station Data A Radio Range Station Document includes details important to pilots such as Station Names, Frequencies, Idents, Locations and Beam Azimuths. Of significant importance, an approach plate is also included for the primary airport nearest to each Radio Range station. Allan Greene created 118 familiar approach plates for this document and also wrote an instruction manual on how to fly a Radio Range Instrument approach. Pilots can also access the Radio Range Station Document from the kneeboard while in flight. Easy Installation A single, self-executing file will install all of the Radio Range files, including full documentation, into your Flight Simulator system. Note, however, that this Radio Range is only compatible with FS2004. Hopefully, it will be compatible with future releases of Flight Simulator with little or no modification. More Radio Range System Details The panel gauge simulates radio-range reception from specific radio-range stations along the Civil Airways routes of the period. It is not usable on other LF stations because it makes special use of the included add-on scenery to simulate the Radio-Range. We hope to expand the Radio-Range capability later to include more of the US stations as well as Radio Range systems in other countries. When used with the gauge the add-on scenery simulates the Radio-Range Stations. They together provide appropriate power transmitters that broadcast four courses set to the desired azimuth and with the proper A and N codes. As in the real world, the A and N sounds are at 1020 Hz. We changed the broadcast frequencies of the Radio Range Stations from the original to avoid conflicts with existing fs9 NDBs. A very special feature of the add-on scenery is visual ... Weather permitting, you can see the radio range sites with their five towers as you approach them. The towers are lighted at night for easy identification, too. NOTE ... It was easy enough to create a steady 1020 Hz tone for the On-Beam signal, but reliably turning off that signal in fs9 was a problem. So, for the time being, the fs9 On-Beam tone is a Pulsed Dash but the interpretation of the A's or N's remains easy. We anticipate that a fix to this problem will be available either as a patch or in the future release that includes the Western US and Canada Stations. Historical Accuracy Although the FS Radio Range was a technical break-through, historical accuracy received just as much emphasis. As one could imagine, the details of the 118 Radio Range Stations modeled here weren't within easy reach. Undaunted, Dave Bitzer traveled ten times to the US National Archives in College Park, Maryland to retrieve the needed information from 1944 Sectional Charts on file there. Alex Nicolson also pored through his very extensive library of vintage aviation text books to provide accurate technical details. His excellent visual scenery files of the Radio Range Stations are also the direct benefit of his library and his research. Getting Started The next four sections of this manual, Operation, the Training Flight, John Achor's article on flying the Radio Range based on his US Air Force experience, and the Flight Planning segment should nudge you into the comfort zone of Radio Range piloting. For those whose thirst for more information is unquenchable, an extensive list of resource documents appears in the References section. Finding the Radio Range aircraft in the fs9 Aircraft Listing The Radio Range installation creates a new aircraft folder in the fs9 "Aircraft" directory. That new aircraft folder is named DC3_RR When you are ready to fly, open the aircraft directory in fs9 (Alt–A–A). In that directory, make the following three selections: Aircraft manufacturer Douglas Aircraft model DC-3 RR Variation (Here you select the panel of your choice) 1940 Panel 1945 Panel NH Panel Return to the Top of this document 4 . . . OPERATION In addition to the Radio Range Gauge the Radio Range DC-3 has dual LF Receivers that can tune to the Radio Range frequencies. If you are using a different aircraft it must have an LF receiver that can tune the frequency range of 500 kHz to 900 kHz. Note again that Radio Range operation is only available with LF-1. If a Radio Range station is tuned in with LF-2, it will appear as a standard NDB. Also, if you are flying an aircraft with Radio Range capability other than the Radio Range DC-3, be certain that your VHF NAV receivers are not tuned to any frequencies in the area of your flight to realistically fly the Radio Range. We don't want any VOR signals, ILS signals or DME readouts appearing on your panel during a Radio Range flight. GPS is definitely not OK, also. As you will see in the training flight, operation of Radio-Range Navigation is extremely simple. You dial in the frequency of the radio range transmitter whose beam you want to follow, using your LF-1 tuner. Intercept the beam and fly it based on audio feedback. If you are to one side of the beam, a Morse "N" will be heard, and on the other side, a Morse "A" will be heard. The N and A alternate between beams, and the rule is that "N" is always in the True North location. The BC-345 gauge on your panel signifies that your aircraft supports radio-range navigation. This authentic looking switch allows the pilot to select the "beam" sound (Range), the Station ID (Voice), or Both. All radio-range navigation is by sound. On beam navigation is signaled by a steady pulsed frequency of 1020 Hz, one side of the beam is signaled by the Morse Code "N" repeated about 20 times per minute, and the other side is signaled by a repeated Morse "A." As in a real aircraft, the volume of the received audio presented by the gauge provides an indication of whether you are flying toward or away from the Station. To tune in a distant range station, you must turn the volume control knob all the way up, and even then, the sound will be weak, indicating the limit of reception distance. Because of the huge dynamic range of signals, when in the vicinity of a Station you must turn the volume control knob at least one-half way down (counter clockwise) to prevent audio overload, which would impair properly hearing the "cone of silence". To turn off both the range and ID sounds, select the "Voice" position on the BC-345, and then turn off the LF tuner's ID switch. The maximum volume of the beam sounds is not adjustable inside the game. If you find it comparably louder or softer than the other game sounds, adjust it to a comfortable volume with your Windows volume controls first, and then adjust the other Game sounds by adjusting the game volume controls. The proper way to tune in a radio-range station is to select the Voice switch position on the BC-345, then tune in the proper beam frequency with the aircraft's LF-1 receiver. Note that Radio Range capability is not available with LF-2. Always confirm that you are on the right station by listening to the Morse station identifier. Then you should select "Range" to turn on the beam sound. If you can hear the station identifier, you should be able to hear the radio-range signal. However, if you are directly over the station, in the "cone of Silence," you will hear neither the range tones nor the station identifier. The cone of silence over the transmitter is important as it marks your station passage. On passing the station, usually the sides of the beam you are on have reversed their N or A Morse signals. You will notice a quick dip in the signal strength as you approach the zone of silence. In some cases, the Station Data Tables, more on this below, include information for NDB approaches, such as bearing, distance, and appropriate altitude information. If your panel does not include an ADF indicator (very rare), just fly the approach by dead reckoning. For your convenience, the Kneeboard reference icon in the Radio Range DC-3 will call up a custom reference page with a link to the Radio Range Manual. This link will let you look at the Manual and Station Data Tables without pausing the game. There is a "quirk" in the link, so if you want to link to other than the previous place in the Manual, you need to close the kneeboard, and re-enter it. The custom kneeboard can also be installed in other aircraft. The custom kneeboard feature is for those not lucky enough to have dual monitors. Return to the Top of this document 5 . . . THE TRAINING FLIGHT In the Training Flight you will fly from Jacksonville, Florida to Miami, Florida using the Radio Range. This flight is excerpted from Air Pilot Training by Bert A. Shields, 1942. You are advised to print the Training Flight document to have at hand during the flight. Just click the "Print" button at the top of your browser after switching to the Printer Friendly Copy. But first, here is the PIREP information for DC-3 Airways pilots: The PIREP number is RR00 as in RR-Zero-Zero. Take five hours credit for the flight, 300 minutes. Below you will find the details of the Training Flight. Here is the summary to give you the big picture.
Summary of the Radio Range Training Flight
Plan on a 3000 ft cruise altitude. Morse Code "A" is Morse Code "N" is Depart Rwy 31, Jacksonville, Florida, airport, KJAX Turn right to 140° and fly direct to Jacksonville Radio Range Station, 555 kHz, "JX." Fly outbound from JX Radio Range on Leg 3, 163°. Fly the "A" Twilight Zone. Upon passing Daytona Beach Radio Range Station, 536 kHz, "DB", just east of your course, tune LF-1 to Melbourne Radio Range Station, 538 kHz, "OU." Fly inbound to Melbourne on Leg 4, 162°. Again, fly the "A" Twilight Zone. Fly Outbound from OU Radio Range on Leg 2, 162°. Fly the "N" Twilight Zone. As you near West Palm Beach airport be prepared to intercept Miami Radio Range Station, 544 kHz, "MM." Fly inbound to MM on Leg 1, 189°, in the "N" Twilight Zone. At Miami Range Station, turn right, land Rwy 27L of Miami Airport, about 3 NM distant. Distance ... 306 NM; Time ... about 2 Hours
Set Up the Initial Flight Simulator Conditions From your usual "Start-up" situation, change the aircraft to the Radio Range DC-3, and select the 1945 Panel from the aircraft list ... Douglas/DC-3 RR/1945 Panel From "Go to Airport" (Alt–W–A) go to Jacksonville, KJAX, Runway 31. Tune your LF-1 Receiver to 555 kHz. Turn up the Volume on the BC-345 Radio Range Gauge to about two-thirds full. Select "Range" on the BC-345 – you should hear a succession of Morse "N"s. Select "Voice" – in a few moments you should hear the "JX" Station Ident (). Change to "Both" – you will now hear both "Range" signals and "Station Identifier" signals. Tune your LF-2 Receiver to Daytona Beach Radio, 536 kHz, Station Ident DB. This is to verify station passage, when you will retune LF-1 to the Melbourne Radio Range Station. Note that Radio Range operation is only possible on LF-1 Configure your aircraft as required for flight (flaps, trim, fuel selector, etc.). Set FS Weather to "Fair Weather" under the Weather Themes category. Save this Flight as "Range Jacksonville R31". Should you later wish to fly a different Radio Range course, all you have to do is start with the saved Jacksonville flight, then move to the desired airfield and reset your Radio to the nearest Range Station. If you save each profile in turn as a "Range.XXX. flight" then you will correctly have setup situations to use for the 1940 period Range Airways flights. If you use "FSNav" or the Microsoft Game Map, once you have "Slewed" the aircraft upward to some convenient Altitude with the "Q" key you can move the Aircraft anywhere in the World. Obviously you need to set adequate Power, Airspeed and Altitude clearance unless "Paused", or still in "Slew" configuration. This is a simple and reliable alternate to the "Create a Flight" procedure with the advantage of retaining all of your preset parameters . (Not the Radio Range Volume Control setting, however.) Training Flight Jacksonville, Florida to Miami, Florida. From Air Pilot Training, as noted. The original training manual pages are transcribed below. Frequencies have been changed and some beam directions have been slightly altered to be compatible with Flight Simulator 9. Riding The Beam "The installation of a good radio practically solves your navigation problems, provided that you confine your flying to the established airways. Even in good weather, it is not necessary to watch the ground for all the minor landmarks along the course, for the radio beam will keep you on your course. We shall make a flight from Jacksonville, Fla., to Miami, Fla. Let us assume that you have checked your weather with the Weather Bureau and have found the ceiling and visibility are above the prescribed minimum for contact flying. You would ordinarily use an aeronautical sectional chart, but you might also carry a radio facilities map, a section of which is shown in the Figure above. You should study your sectional chart until you are familiar with the terrain and have picked out the most prominent landmarks. As noted, before taking off at Jacksonville, tune your radio to 555 kHz, the frequency of the Jacksonville radio range. The signal should come in very loud because of your close proximity to the range station. However, you should wait for the identification signal, JX () in order to be positive that you are tuned to the correct station. Consulting your chart again, you will find that the direction of the southeast leg of the Jacksonville range is 343° toward the station. Thus, the direction away from the station would be 163°M. This is the magnetic course, since all radio bearings are given as magnetic. The correct corresponding compass course can be read from the compass card in your plane. Your approximate drift can be determined by working out a drift diagram from the wind velocities as given by the Weather Bureau, or you may determine your drift angle while following the radio beam. Make your customary take-off from Rwy 31, then turn right to about 140° and fly direct to the JX Radio Range Station, You will easily sight the Radio Range Station towers several miles ahead and the Morse code sounds should be very strong. Once you reach the Jacksonville Range Station, at the cone of silence, you will fly outbound on the 343° Beam, which is FROM the Station. Your chart indicates that you will receive an "A" signal if you are on the right side of the beam, and an "N" signal if you are on the left of it. You should fly along the right side of the beam, or in the "A" twilight zone (On course and Off course signals at equal volume). The Twilight-Zone magnetic course will be about 165°. Let us assume that you are receiving an "A" signal. This will indicate that you are too far to the right, or southwest of your course. Change your compass course slightly to the left by subtracting 5° from your heading. If this doesn't bring you into the "A" twilight zone, subtract 5° more from your compass heading. As soon as you receive the "A" and "on course" signals with equal intensity, change your course slightly to the right, and adjust as necessary to keep the intensity of the two signals equal. Any variation in the intensity of the "A" or the "on course" signal indicates you are getting slightly off course, and you should correct for it immediately by adding or subtracting one or two degrees to or from your heading. The same general procedure should be followed if you find yourself in the "N" quadrant when you first check your radio signals. However, in this case it will be necessary to cross the beam to reach the "A" twilight zone. A low powered ML-type range station is located at Daytona Beach, which is approximately half way between Jacksonville and Melbourne. If you were flying on instruments, or over the top, you could turn your set to 536 kHz and tune in Daytona Beach, "DB" () to check your progress along your course and ascertain your ground speed. On passing Daytona Beach Radio, you should be able to bring in the Melbourne range by tuning your set to 538 kHz and listening for the identification signal "OU" (). The direction of the Melbourne northwest leg to the station is 162° magnetic. Note that this is one degree offset from the outbound beam from Jacksonville. However, since the beams do not align perfectly, you will usually find yourself in the "N" quadrant of the Melbourne range when you first acquire it. Turn right 10°, cross the beam and establish position on the "A" twilight zone. Then turn left to follow the beam, 162° M, to the Melbourne Radio Range, which you will identify by its cone of silence. Inbound on the "A" twilight zone, your average heading will be 160°. On station passage at Melbourne range, track the 162° magnetic outbound beam. This will take you towards the West Palm Beach Airport, where you will intercept the north leg of the Miami Radio Range, . Ride the "N" twilight zone to remain on the west side of the beam, and your average heading should be about 164°. When you estimate that you are approaching West Palm Beach airport, adjust your set to 544 kHz to tune in Miami, "MM," (). If you are west of the north leg of the Miami beam, you will receive an "N" signal. You should continue on your same course until you encounter the Miami beam. This beam is 189° magnetic and your average heading will be 187°. If you receive an "A" signal, it will indicate that you have already crossed the Miami beam, and you should alter your course toward the west to get back to the "N" twilight zone. By referring to your chart, you will notice that the direction of the north leg of the Miami range is 189°. This means that you must add 27° to your heading from Melbourne. The "N" quadrant is still on your right and so you continue to ride in the "N" twilight zone of this beam. At the Miami Range station, turn right and proceed westward two or three miles to the Miami airport. Land on Rwy 27L. Under ordinary circumstances, the pilot would continually refer to landmarks on the ground to assist him in piloting the airplane, but this visual reference is not necessary for navigation, since the radio facilities supply all the needed information. As can be seen by the foregoing directions, the procedure is extremely simple. It consists merely of tuning in the correct stations and keeping on the correct side of the beam, as indicated by the aeronautical or radio-facilities charts. All the necessary radio information is carried on these charts, including the station frequency, the quadrant-identification signal, the elevation above sea level, the identification of the quadrants, and the direction of the four beams. Any competent pilot should be able to make use of these radio facilities with a few hours' practice." Return to the Top of this document 6 . . . MORE ON FLYING THE RANGE John Achor, DC-3 Airways Vice President, Technical, and Training Division Team Leader, authored Adcock Radio Range Orientation and Instrument Approaches, an article based on his personal flight experiences in the US Air Force. This easy to read document will help you master Orientation and Instrument Approach procedures. You will want this near at hand while flying. This is an excellent tutorial for beginners and veterans alike. Return to the Top of this document 7 . . . FLIGHT PLANNING In the Training Flight, everything was spelled out for you. From this point on, though, the flight planning is up to you. Here is what you must determine before embarking on a Radio Range flight. Let's assume that you are flying from Richmond, Virginia to Raleigh, North Carolina. Which Civil Airway(s)? Which Radio Range Stations? Range Station Information? What is your average magnetic course for each leg? Will the quadrant(s) that you fly in be identified by an A or by an N? At what altitude should you fly? Instrument Approach Procedures In addition to this, of course, you will also calculate your normal time, distance, and wind correction angle information.
| #### A ... Which Civil Airway To determine which US Civil Airway you will fly, check this US Civil Airways Map. This map is not easily read in such a small view, so here is the link to a higher resolution image. The map segment to the left, from the US Civil Airways Map, shows that Amber 7 is the Airway for a Richmond to Raleigh flight. The color of the airway is important because it also defines your altitude rules. More on that later. If your Radio Range flight does not follow an existing airway, skip to the next step.
| #### B ... Which Radio Range Stations Now you can select the appropriate Radio Range Stations. This map shows the 1944 US Radio Range Stations. Again, you may wish to print a higher resolution of this map. Both Richmond and Raleigh have Radio Range Stations as you can see in the map segment to the left.
Here are the 118 fs9 Radio Range Stations currently simulated. Click the back button on the browser to return to this manual. NOTE: The indicated beams on the Radio Range Maps are only approximately aligned and shouldn't be relied upon. Correct Beam information should only be obtained from the Station Data Tables. #### C ... Radio Range Station Information Go to the Station Data Tables for the Radio Range Station details. Before you select any cities in the Data Table, make note of the list of Terms and Abbreviations. Now select the desired station from the index links, Richmond in this case. The first part of the Richmond Data Table is the Text portion. (Shown in blue below for emphasis.)

    RICHMOND, VA Radio Range	  MagVar 9.3W

    "RW"	527 kHz	37-28.50N 77-20.22W    Range 100nm

    	To	Fm	Remarks:
    Leg1	186M	006M
    Leg2	317M	137M
    Leg3	041M	221M
    Leg4	127M	307M

    Airport:
    KRIC Richmond Intl VA, 167' MSL, 033M/2.0nm
From here we learn that the: Station Identifier is "RW" Station frequency is 527 kHz. Magnetic Variation is 9 deg west Primary Azimuth beam to Raleigh will be Leg 3 ... 221 deg mag. FROM Station RW. Then follows the custom Instrument Approach Plate created by Allan Greene which shows the relationship of Richmond Radio Range to the airport including a pictorial representation of the four courses. Repeat this data collection procedure for each Radio Range Station in your flight plan. #### D ... Average Magnetic Course From the Station Data tables we learned that the Primary Legs (shown in red below) between Richmond and Raleigh were: 221 deg magnetic outbound from Richmond. 221 deg magnetic inbound to Raleigh. But we don't fly on the centerline of the Beam, but rather in the twilight zone to the RIGHT of the beam. The beam is 3 deg wide, or 1.5 deg from centerline to either outside edge. We have to move a bit further to the right to get into the twilight side, so, For the OUTBOUND leg, ADD 2 deg to the beam azimuth for your Average Magnetic Course: For the INBOUND leg, SUBTRACT 2 deg from the beam azimuth for your Average Magnetic Course: So here are the average magnetic courses from Richmond to Raleigh: 223 deg magnetic outbound from Richmond. 219 deg magnetic inbound to Raleigh. This is only approximate because the tones that you hear in your earphones define your exact magnetic course. This is your "Straight Line" course from Richmond to Raleigh when flying in the Twilight Zone. #### E ... Do we listen for an A or an N OK, we know to fly to the right of the Primary Beams, as shown below, which defines the quadrants we will fly in. Next, we must determine which are the "N" quadrants and which are the "A" quadrants. Below is a segment from the Boston 1950 Sectional Chart (Since replaced by the New York Sectional Chart). Note that the A and N sides of each Radio Range beam were clearly marked. The Radio Box also shows that VHF facilities were becoming available by 1950. But today we don't have easy access to Sectional Charts with Radio Range information to determine the location of the A and N quadrants we have to fall back to the rule in effect in 1945: As an aid to orientation, a uniform procedure is used in determining the quadrants. The letter N is always assigned to the quadrant thru which the true north line from the station passes; or if the center of the beam coincides with true north the letter N is assigned to the quadrant on the west. From the illustration to the left, note that a course drawn from the station towards True North lies in quadrant N. (North = N ... Got it?) Since the Morse identifier alternates in adjacent quadrants we can ascertain the Morse code information for the other three quadrants. Again, if a Range Beam azimuth is also True North, then the sector to the West is the N quadrant. #### Forget the mental gymnastics above, though. Dave Bitzer and Allan Greene have identified the A and N quadrants for you. As mentioned earlier, Dave Bitzer traveled to the US National Archives to access the 1944 Sectional Charts on file there. Those charts provided the accurate station locations, beam azimuths, and A and N quadrant locations that are in the FS Radio Range system. Allan Greene also placed the pertinent details on the 118 Instrument Approach Plates that he created.
|  | The plan view of the Richmond Approach Plate shows that to fly outbound in the right twilight zone of the 221° beam we will be in the #### A quadrant.
|  | The plan view of the Raleigh Approach Plate shows that to fly inbound in the right twilight zone of the 041° beam we will be in the #### N quadrant.
These Station Data Tables are accessible from the kneeboard while in flight, thus the pilot can determine whether to listen for an A or an N during any segment of their flight route. #### F ... Flight Altitudes The legend shown to the left from the US Civil Airways Chart defines the flight altitudes. If you are not flying on an established airway, then fly the standard US IFR altitudes: For Magnetic Course 0° to 179°, at or above 3000 ft above the ground, fly ODD thousands of feet, i.e., 5000, 7000 ft, etc. ... Memory aid is "Easterners are ODD." For Magnetic Course 180° to 359°, at or above 3000 ft above the ground, fly EVEN thousands of feet, i.e., 4000, 6000, 8000 ft, etc. Return to the Top of this document 8 . . . STATION DATA Here is the Radio Range Station Data. This Radio Range System is the result of months of research and testing. It is accurately based on the Radio Range System as it existed in the US and Southern Canada in 1944. Station location and Beam Azimuth information was obtained from 1944 Sectional Charts on file at the US National Archives in College Park, Maryland. Return to the Top of this document 9 . . . INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURES Not only did the Radio Range provide electronic guidance along the Civil Airways, but it also allowed instrument approaches to the nearby primary airport. Here is a typical Radio Range approach plate. It provides information for an instrument approach to Rwy 32 at Raleigh-Durham, North Carolina, airport. You will find these in the Station Data Tables. This approach plate is the starting point in a well illustrated, superb instruction manual, authored by Allan Greene. That document provides all of the information to understand and fly Radio Range Instrument Approaches. Return to the Top of this document 10 . . . YOUR NEW DC-3 Below you will learn of the features of your new Radio Range (RR) DC-3. But first, be aware of two items. Microsoft's default fs9 DC-3 must be present in your main aircraft folder. The RR DC-3 aliases to the default fs9 DC-3 for the sound files and if that aircraft is missing you will have a very quiet RR DC-3. If you want a different sound set, simply backup the sound folder in the RR DC-3 and replace it with a sound folder with a new set of files. Many consider Trev Morson's DC-3 Sound Set, a 17 MB file, superior to the default DC-3. Even if you don't want to swap out the sound file, a visit to Trev's website, The DC-3 Hangar, is always worthwhile. Mark Beaumont's "DCA_Classic" textures install with the RR DC-3. DC-3 Airways members who prefer his excellent "DCA Bare Metal" texture set may download it here. Rename the old texture folder in the Radio Range DC-3 and replace it with the new texture folder. If your interest in livery sets is broader, visit FlightSim.com or AVSIM. As of early 2006, 211 texture repaints were available for the default fs9 DC-3. An Important fs9 Setup Note.
|  | The modified Flaps Deployment feature (you will read more of this farther down) will not function unless fs9 is set up as shown to the left. Open fs9 and go to the "Settings-Realism" page, Alt–A–R. Then tick the box 'Aircraft stress causes damage' if it is not already checked. Then finish by clicking 'OK'.
1. OK, as promised, here are the features of the Radio Range DC-3, a much-improved version of the default fs9 DC-3. Initially, the complete DC-3 aircraft was included with the Radio Range system because it greatly simplified the installation procedure, i.e., clicking a single self-extracting file would install all of the files. However, as you will see below, far more benefits acrued. Three selectable panels customized for Radio Range flying.
   Click for a larger view. | 1940 Panel
   Click for a larger view. | 1945 Panel
   Click for a larger view. | NH Panel
3. Which Panel is best for you? A 1940 version of the Stock DC3 panel. It gives the user the look and feel of the Stock cockpit and panel, but with improved readability gauges. It also takes away the GPS, NAV Radios, etc. and adds the Radio Range Gauge. It is a simpler panel, more like the basic 1940 vintage panel. A 1945 version of the Stock DC3. It also has the easy to read gauges, and replaces the Dual ADF indicator with a Dual RMI display (Automatically rotating Compass Card). It replaces the "coffee grinder" crank tuned radio with a digital dial tuned radio, and replaces the venerable Sperry autopilot with a more modern DC-4 style autopilot, which is more representative of a "copilot" simulator. The Norman Hancock (NH) panel, ideal for those who want to fly in a very nicely laid out DC-3 panel with easy to read, authentic gauges, including the Radio Range Gauge. This has all the bells and whistles that we have come to expect from Norman's panels. Redesigned Flight Instruments to improve readability Redesigned Engine Gauges to improve readability
   |  | Note that the default three-tank fuel system was replaced by the Bitzer-Beaumont four-tank fuel system. Be alert that with four fuel tanks one might exceed this DC-3's 26,200 lbs maximum Gross Weight. Check your aircraft's gross weight on fs9 at Alt–W–T. Repaired the improper MS gear light system so that the indicator lights are now OFF with the landing gear in the raised position.
4. Custom Throttles with DC-3 Auto Mixture System
   |  | Cleaned up throttles. Calibrated Pitch Trim Indicator ... Set Pitch Trim at 3° nose-up for take-off. Auto Mixture system that matches the real DC-3 mixture plus mimics the real DC-3 with detent stops. ... Auto-Rich for Take off, Climb and Descent. ... Auto-Lean for Cruise. NOTE: Uncheck the fs9 "enable automixture" feature, so the gauge, not the game, controls the mixture. Go to Alt–A–R in fs9 to verify this.
5. Click the left or right side of a label to individually set a desired mixture setting. Click near the center of the label to simultaneously set mixtures for both engines. A Tail Wheel Lock indicator light was also added to the throttle console. Custom Radios
   On the 1940 Panel |  | Dual LF Receivers with digital frequency indicators. Note that no frequency scale shows in the Band 1 positions, just as in the default fs9 LF Receivers. This is not a problem since FS has no stations in the Band 1 frequency range. Digital Comm-1 Radio.
   |  | New Hot Spots near the tuning cranks provide optional fast tuning of the LF Receivers. Fast tune is 10 kHz steps vs the normal 0.5 kHz steps.
   | On the 1945 and NH Panels |  | Replaced the Sperry Autopilot and Coffee Grinder radios with the L049 Connie Radios and AP, with permission from FSDZigns. FSDZigns also granted permission to modify the radios for Radio Range use. Added a digital timer.
6. Cowl Flaps
   | The Cowl Flaps now induce drag, and thus affect airspeed depending on their position. The Cowl Flap Switch also now operates correctly. For example, rotate the switch to "open" or "close" and when the cowl flaps are in the desired position, you must return the switch to the "Off" position to stop their movement. Cowl Flap Position Indicators are below the knobs. Flight-Sim pilots little appreciate or understand the importance of properly setting Cowl Flap positions. Fortunately, current real-world pilots at DC-3 Airways who fly both the DC-3 and other aircraft have helped clear up this issue for the rest of us. Here is what you should know about positioning Cowl Flaps.
Stopwatch |  | The Stopwatch is useful for approaches, leg times, or any other short event. Press the top button to start or stop the watch, the button on the right to reset it. Elapsed minutes are also digitally displayed to the left of the start button. Here the timer shows 1 min and 37 sec.

- The E6-B Pop-up Flight Computer

  The E6-B Flight Computer was created by Phillip Dalton in the early 1930s. Over70 years later
  it is still a useful flight aid to many pilots. It is particularly pertinent to the era of the Radio Range
  System. The E6-B is simple to learn and we think you will enjoy using it.

  The front ... A circular Slide Rule to calculate Time, Distance,
  Speed, and Fuel.

  |  | Panel Simicon

  The back ... Wind Calculations

  |  | Panel Simicon

      Course

      360

      Ground Speed

               100

      Wind Mark

      Direction 360

      speed       0

      Wind Mark

      Direction 360

      speed       0

      Wind Mark

      Direction 360

      speed       0

  E6-B Instructions

  Thanks to Sandy Blaize, a copy of the 1944 E6-B Instruction Manual is available, now in the Public Domain. Sandy is fortunate to have an original manual and so the copy is very high quality. This is a 124 page, 14 MB download, and you can do no better.

  Dave Bitzer wrote a Quick-Start Guide that will quickly get you comfortable on the use of this E6-B.

- Further details on the Norman Hancock Panel

  History has shown that Norman Hancock only leaves a great feature off a panel if he's unaware of it. The Radio Range NH panel is no exception and it is fun to fly. While most of the gauges on the NH panel will be familiar to you or easily understood, some deserve a bit of explanation. These are all freeware gauges available on the major archives, so feel free to install any of them on your own panels, too.

  1. ... Parking Brakes

  Click the Parking Brake Handle to set or release the Parking Brakes. Note that
  when the Parking Brakes are set an indicator in the handle shows "ON."

  2. ... Fuel Level Warning Lights

     Panel Warning Lights indicate when fuel falls below 40 gallons in the main tanks
     or 10 gallons in the auxilliary tanks. Thanks to Tim Cook for this gauge. The
     right image announces that the fuel level in the Left Main tank is less than 40 gallons.

  3. ... Outside Air Temperature

     Outside Air Temperature can optionally be read in degrees Centigrade
     or degrees Fahrenheit by flipping the toggle switch left of the indicator window.

  4. ... Radio Range Indicator Lamp

     The Radio Range panel light will glow Amber when flying in the Twilight Zone, or Green when flying On-the-Beam. The lamp is OFF when not near a beam. NOTE: The BC-345 volume control must be set at a comfortable listening level for the RR indicator lamp to function.

  5. ... Remote Mixture Control

     With the Remote Mixture Control,
     the pilot can select the desired
     auto-mixture setting without the
     need of going to the
     Throttle Pop-up panel.

  6. ... Signal Strength Meter

     Low-Frequency radios in the era of the DC-3 were all analog. One "rocked" the tuning knob to center the tuning on any given frequency, listening for the loudest signal.

     The Signal Strength Meter improved on this procedure: one now only had to tune for maximum needle indication.
     The indication on the Signal Strength Meter also allowed one to gauge the distance ("near" or "far" only) of the station, and thus its reliability for navigation.

     Radios are all digitally tuned in fs9 and thus the Signal Strength Meter is no longer needed for accurate tuning. It still has value in judging relative signal strength of the Radio Range signal, though.

  7. ... Descent Calculator

     |  | Panel Simicon

     This pop-up gauge calculates the distance in window "S" to descend from altitude 1 in window "H1" to altitude 2 in window "H2" with a descent rate shown in window "rt" and a ground speed shown in window "W."

     The units to the right of each window will help you remember which parameters go into each window.

     Here the gauge calculates that it will take 25 NM to descend from 7000 ft to 1500 ft at 500 fpm with a ground speed of 135 kts.

     The toggle switch on the lower right changes the numbers from meters and kilometers to feet and Nautical Miles.

     The lower left button enters your autopilot Altitude into window "H1" and the lower right button enters your current true speed into window "W."

  8. ... Fuel Flow Gauge

     |  | Panel Simicon

     Bob Guy's RKG FuelStat gauge monitors much
     more than just fuel flow. Go Here to read
     the features and instructions for this great gauge.

  9. ... Fuel Consumption Gauge

     |  | Panel Simicon

     This gauge is useful to determine the fuel consumption of the various legs of a flight while measuring total flight fuel consumption with the RKG FuelStat above. Click the "Start" button
     to begin measuring the fuel used, "Reset" at the end of the leg.

  10. ... Drift Meter

      Ever since the early days of aviation pilots have yearned for accurate winds-aloft data. During the era of the DC-3 the Drift Meter was one answer. It didn't determine the winds aloft, but rather how much the aircraft was drifting off course due to the winds. With this information, one can easily extrapolate the needed Wind Correction Angle (WCA).

      Dave Bitzer and Pierre "Paddy" Verster designed a historically accurate replica of the Drift Meter. Like its real-world counterpart, it is only usable in VFR conditions since it depends on sighting a landmark on the ground and tracking its "movement" as the aircraft passes over it. To start, click the Drift Meter Simicon on the panel and from there the procedures are simple.

      |  | Panel Simicon

      Note, it is important to select an easily-identifiable landmark. Here we have chosen an athletic field, seen under the center scribe-line near the top of the gauge.

      Using the + and – keys, size the landmark to comfortably fit between the outer scribe lines. Begin with the WDA Knob set at 0 degrees. |  | Don't zoom in too tight; the Wind Drift Angle will be difficult to measure.
      Rotate the WDA Knob so that the Landmark slides down between the outer scribe lines. |  | Adjust the WDA Knob as necessary to keep the moving Landmark within the outer scribe lines.
      Nicely done! After a few usages, properly setting the WDA Knob becomes easy. |  | The measurement shows that our aircraft is drifting to the right, off course by 7 degrees. (A plus reading is a drift to the right; a minus reading is a drift to the left.)

      Since the aircraft has drifted to the right, the wind is coming from the left. We must turn left, into the wind, to stop the drift off course. Begin with a Wind Correction Angle with the same value as the aircraft's Wind Drift Angle, but in the OPPOSITE direction, thus –7 degrees. After changing the aircraft heading by this amount, recheck the Wind Drift Angle again with another measurement to improve the accuracy. Then readjust the aircraft heading once again. Remember, the net WCA will be the sum of those two adjustments.

      For those who wish to install the original Drift Meter on other panels of the DC-3 era, Dave Bitzer's version 01 of that gauge is still available on AVSIM.com. But Version 02, as installed here on the Radio Range aircraft, has professional artwork by Norman Hancock, and the additional feature that the gauge can be used without leaving the panel view. Download version 02 of the Drift Meter and its full instruction manual from AVSIM.com. If it's not available yet, it's coming soon.

  11. ... The Sextant

      Once proven, the Radio Range system rapidly expanded throughout the world. However, aircraft still had to traverse large areas of the world without the benefit of Navaids. Ocean crossings were a prime example.

      In those instances, aviators called upon ship navigation techniques adapted for aircraft. Without landmarks, the navigators used Dead Reckoning (DR) or Celestial Navigation with a sextant.

      |  | Panel Simicon

      Celestial or Astronomical Navigation provides a means of obtaining Lines of Position (LOPs) from the stars. Crossing LOPs will fix a position. It requires a chart, and a planned course on that chart, with way points specified by Latitude and Longitude, an assumed time of arrival at each way point, and stars (including the Sun, Moon, or Planets) in view.

      In the 1940s, extensive tables of star positions, called Air Almanacs, were made available to air navigators to be used with sextants to obtain these LOPs. In the tables, all times involved are GMT. This data is available from the Internet in "ready to use" form. Best of all, when accessing these tables, enter any date appropriate for your flight, including the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s.

      This gauge simulates the sextant, and the process by which one obtains an LOP, or crossing LOPs to establish a position, or fix. Although the sextant is installed in the NH panel, Download it here for any FS2004 aircraft of the DC-3 era.

      You will find a comprehensive browser-based Instruction Manual in the download, including Internet references to Star Position Tables and an example flight to get you started.

      The Sextant is another great feature by Mark Beaumont and Dave Bitzer.

- Improved Flight Dynamics

  Contains most of the original BB-4 Flight Dynamics improvements by Dave Bitzer and Mark Beaumont.

  - Adjusted the lift and drag scalars for proper glide distance.

  - Adjusted the propeller specs to fly at the "endurance" setting without stalling.

  - Shortened the take-off roll distance.

  - Adjusted the engine power to match climb and cruise specs.

  - Adjusted the turbocharge power so the Manifold Pressure begins to fall at 3000 ft rather
    than 7000 ft.

  - Adjusted the speed increase to be more uniform with MP increase.

  - Set the low fuel-pressure lights to come on at idle power.

  - Matched the fuel flow at cruise with the real cruise specs.

  - Increased the braking to stop the aircraft more quickly.

  - Improved the stability when the flaps are deployed.

  - Adjusted the fuel tank positions to meet specs.

  - Enabled the pilot to see the engine and wing out the left rear window for a realistic
    view when in left traffic patterns.

  Plus further Flight-Dynamics improvements by Dave Bitzer made possible by modifying both the aircraft.cfg file and the *.air file.

  - Take-off Power

  - Climb Rate

  - Descent Speed

  - Landing Roll Distance

  - Autopilot Control Range

- Other Aircraft Improvements

  - An upgraded Bitzer-Beaumont Auto-Mixture Control system that
    accurately simulates the real DC-3 Mixture Control System.

  - The Bitzer-Beaumont four fuel-tank modification which also eliminates
    the artificial "All-Tank" fuel feed in the default fs9 DC-3.

  - Prevention of Flaps deployment at excessive speeds. This feature exists
    in the real DC-3, and here are the numbers:
    - 160 kts IAS max for 1/4 flaps.
    - 104 kts IAS max for 1/2 flaps.
    - 98 kts IAS max for 3/4 or full flaps.

    So if your flaps don't seem to be lowering, better check your airspeed.

  - Visible engine-start and tire-smoke effects.

  - Cleaned-up panel bitmaps by Andy Hatcher.

  - Classic or Bare Metal DC-3 Airways aircraft textures by Mark Beaumont.

  Return to the Top of this document

  11 . . . CUSTOM KNEEBOARD

  The Radio Range Installation customizes the kneeboard. Here are the new features:
  (In the aircraft, click the Text Icon on the right border of the kneeboard and use the
  scroll bar as needed.)

  - Access the Radio Range Manual.
  - Access the Radio Range Station Data.
  - Call up specific Radio Range DC-3 Instructions.

  Return to the Top of this document

  12 . . . SOME SELECTED FLIGHTS

  More than a few of the DC-3 Airways flights are appropriate for Radio Range flight. Here are some from the
  "US Civil Airways" routes by Mark Thomas.

  ##### A05-02 KMDW to KSTL A05-03 KSTL TO KMEM A05-04 KMEM TO KJAN A05-05 KJAN TO KNEW A06-05 KVQQ to KATL A06-1 KBUF TO KCLE A06-2 KCLE TO KCVG A06-3 KCVG TO KBNA A06-4 KBNA TO KATL A06-5 KATL TO KVQQ | ##### A07-02 KBGR TO KBOS A07-03 KBOS TO KEWR A07-04 KEWR TO KPNE A07-05 KPNE TO KBWI A07-06 KBWI TO KDCA A07-07 KDCA TO KRIC A07-08 KRIC TO KCHS A07-09 KCHS TO KVQQ A07-10 KVQQ to KDAB A07-11 KDAB to KMIA A07-12 KMIA TO KEYW | ##### R14-1 KLOU TO KIND R14-2 KIND TO KMDW R16-1 KCHS TO KCAE R21-1 N96 TO KAGC R21-2 KAGC TO KDTW R23-1 KEWR TO KBUF R25-1 KDAB TO KFMY R25-2 KFMY TO KMIA R33-1 KLGA TO KCXY

  Axx = an Amber Airway and Rxx = a Red Airway. Go here for more flights or more information.

  Here are three flights from the American Airlines Schedule.

  #####
  AA_164 KCRG to KOPF
  AA_166 KCRG to KFTY
  AA_203 KCRG to KFTY

  These are representative samples of the available DC-3 Airways routes, not a complete list. Note that one may also fly these routes in the reverse direction, too.

  Return to the Top of this document

  13 . . . INSTALL or UNINSTALL the RADIO RANGE SYSTEM

  A. To Install the System

  > For completeness of documentation, here is the Readme file included
  > with the latest full-version download.

  B. To Uninstall the System

  > Uninstall the Radio Range System in two easy steps (three steps if you
  > use FSNavigator).

  1. DISCONNECT fs9 from your Radio Range Scenery Files

     - Open Flight Simulator
     - Click on Settings
     on the first page.
  2. Click on Scenery Library.
  3. Highlight "Radio Range" in the Scenery Area table.
  4. Click "Delete Area" and then follow the on-screen instructions.

  5. DELETE the Radio Range Files

     Close FS2004 or all files will not be deleted.

     Note: If you have installed any gauges from the Radio Range System onto other panels,
     you must backup those gauge files before proceeding. The uninstall program will delete
     all files installed by the Radio Range.

     Users remove the Radio Range files the same way other programs are removed ... through the Control Panel. Here's how you do that:

     - Click Start then click Control Panel.
     - On the pop-up panel, click "Add or Remove Programs"
     - When the list of files becomes available, scroll down to the file
       "Radio Range System version 03"
     - Click that program and follow the on-screen instructions.
     - Thanks to Tim Cook for unraveling the procedure that creates separate uninstall files.

  6. If you use FSNavigator, you must create a new database.

     - Close Flight Simulator.
     - Go to the Programs page under the start button.
     - Select FSNavigator for FS2004.
     - Click FSNavDBC.
     - Click the Create database button.
     - Exit when instructed to.

     Return to the Top of this document

     14 . . . REFERENCES

     Here are some references for those who want additional information on flying the Radio Range, including details on several orientation techniques, All of these books are long out of print but may be found either on eBay or via the book search facility at www.abebooks.com. Note that abebooks.com searches 13,000 booksellers.

     1. Air Transport Navigation, Redpath & Coburn, Pitman Publishing 1943.
     2. Through the Overcast, Assen Jordanoff, Funk & Wagnalls 1938
     3. Pilots Handbook of Navigation, Elliott & Guerney, Aero Publishers 1967
     4. Modern Airmanship, Van Sickle, D. Van Nostrand Inc, 1957
     5. North Star Over My Shoulder, Bob Buck, Simon & Schuster 2002 ISBN 0-7432-1964-3
     6. Practical Air Navigation, US Dept. of Commerce, 1945
     7. Aircraft Navigation Manual H.O.216 USNO
     8. Air Pilot Training, Bert A. Shields, 1942
     9. Radio Navigation for Pilots, Instrument Flight Part Two, Colin H McIntosh,
        McGraw-Hill, 1943
     10. TM-1-445 Technical Manual Instrument Flying Training, 1942.
     11. Radio in Airmanship, Maj.Gen. James E. Fechet et al, National Aeronautics Council, Inc.
         New York, 1942

     Return to the Top of this document

     15 . . . ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

     The fs9 Radio Range System comprises over 900 files. Obviously a system of that size can only result from the teamwork of many designers.

     Here are the lead designers and their areas of concentration:

     - Dave Bitzer, gauge concept and XML programming for many gauges, improvements to the flight dynamics, and the first draft of the manual.
     - Alex Nicolson, designed all the scenery, selected the original locations of the stations, determined the original beam directions, and provided the resource references from his extensive library.
     - Norman Hancock, Numerous Gauge designs, many Gauge Face bitmaps, icon construction, and some maps for the manual.

     Very special thanks to Doug Dawson, Toronto, Canada, who developed the XML sound gauge and modified it so that the sounds may be dynamically changed in volume.

     Many thanks also to Allan Greene for the design and production of the very professional mini-approach plates shown in the Station Data Table. He individually prepared 118 of these, one for each range station in the listing plus an inclusive instruction manual on the approach plates. Thanks. also, to Allan for the fast-tune feature on the Coffee-grinder LF radios in the 1940 Panel.

     Hansjoerg Naegele of FSDZigns saved us a lot of work by granting permission to use the Radios and AP from their Connie L049. Hansjoerg also kindly gave us permission to modify these radios for use in our Radio Range Aircraft.

     The designer of the excellent Flight Sim E-6B is presently unknown. When we downloaded this gauge it was Freeware and we assume that it still is. Could the originator, or anyone who can identify the originator, please contact one of the Radio Range designers (Email addresses below) and we will properly credit their fine work.

     The following also deserve special recognition: Michael Ostrow, for technical help on the sound files, John Achor for his Adcock Range how-to article, Andy Hatcher for the cleaned up panel bitmap and technical assistance on the Radio Range tones, Tim Cook, for technical support on the installer and uninstaller program, Mark Thomas who developed the Civil Airways routes, Mark Beaumont for technical consultations, and beta testers Norman Hancock, Mark Thomas, Jim Ford, Victor Buck, and Steve Barati.

     We hope that you enjoy flying the Radio Range!
     For questions or comments, please email Dave Bitzer, DC3-910, at bitzer7@comcast.net or Alex Nicolson at gpvl@shaw.ca or Norman Hancock, DC3-134, at norman.hancock@ntlworld.com.

     NOTE: DC-3 Airways pilots are requested to post questions or comments on the DC-3 Airways Forum rather than using Email. This gives other pilots the benefit of the questions/comments and feedback and may prevent duplicate questions asked of the system designers.

     © Dave Bitzer, Alex Nicolson, Norman Hancock, and Allan Greene, February 2006, Version 3.0. This gauge is freeware. It may not be re-uploaded, modified or included in any pay ware or commercial package without express permission of the authors.

     Return to the Top of this document

     DISCLAIMER:
     THE AUTHORS ARE NOT LIABLE FOR ANY DAMAGE THAT MAY INCUR, REAL OR IMAGINED, AS A RESULT OF USING THESE PRODUCTS. YOU ASSUME ALL RISK OF USE.